Critical Thinking and Writing

A Writer's Guide with Readings

Second Edition

Samples

Discovery exercises which help students identify and apply what they already know about language and about writing:

1-1.
Try arranging the following sentences so that they make a paragraph. There is one best order; see if you can discover it. Then go back over the sentences to find out why it makes sense to put them in a certain order. Once you have drawn your conclusions, compare your findings with the information in the answer key.

1. These writers can then focus and structure their ideas as they prepare the content of a coherent paper.
2. They also hope, all too frequently, that by simply going back and making a few corrections and changes, they can produce good writing.
3. Finally, there are those who list ideas in order to gather a body of relevant information.
4. People approach the task of writing a composition in different ways.
5. Next, there are those who “just start writing.”
6. The blank page stifles their creative powers.
7. First of all, there are those who panic.
8. These writers often feel that they only lose time if they try to organize their ideas first.
9. As a result, they find it difficult to get any words on paper.
10. The writers who follow the last of these approaches to the task are the ones who most frequently attain their goal of creating an effective composition.
11. They take time to think about their subject and write down everything that comes to mind about it.

* * *

THE PARAGRAPH: A SHORT COMPOSITION

        The preceding sentences, rearranged, form a short composition on a very narrow topic. A point about such a limited topic can be developed in a paragraph.

The topic sentence: topic + controlling idea

        As you read through the sentences the first time, you probably asked yourself, perhaps without realizing it, what they could be about. As you went through the sentences, instinctively trying to discover what they were about, you were actually looking for one of the fundamental elements of the unit we call a paragraph: the topic. A composition is about something, and the topic is the term we use for what the writer is discussing in the composition. In other words, the topic is what the writing is about.
        Your second step in analyzing the sentences was probably to look for what the writer was saying about the topic, in other words, what statement, or assertion, was being made about the topic.   You were actually searching for the second fundamental element of the paragraph: the controlling idea. We write in order to make a statement about something, and controlling idea is the term we use for the statement, or point, that the writer is making about the topic of the composition.

10-1.
Unscramble the following three groups of words to make sentences.

1.   is best honesty the policy
2.   cane and street a crossed the with went a into store man a
3.   from hill fallen many the at barn the of top tree beyond had the apples the

THE SUBJECT

        As you looked at the scrambled sentences, you probably asked yourself, perhaps without realizing it, what each group of words could be about. In the first example, the sentence could have been about “honesty” or about “policy,” the only words that name something. The second group of words could have been about a “cane,” “street,” “store,” or “man.” The third sentence could have been about a “hill,” a “barn,” a “tree,” “apples,” or a “top.” One more possibility was the word “many,” which could be a pronoun indicating many of something already mentioned.
        In the process of instinctively going over the words in each sentence to identify what the sentence was about, you were actually looking for one of the fundamental parts of the group of words we call a sentence: you were looking for the subject. The subject is what a sentence is about. It names what the writer is talking about.

THE VERB

        Your second step in analyzing the scrambled sentences in Exercise 10-1 was probably to look for what happened or what was being said about the subject. In the first example, because the sentence is so short, it is easy to identify “is” as the word that can say something about something. In the second sentence, there are two words denoting actions: “crossed” and “went.” Of the four possible subjects, only the “man” would be likely to “cross” something or “go” somewhere. Thus, you were probably able to add the other fundamental part of the sentence, the verb, to the subject. The verb in the third sentence is “had fallen,” and the potential subject that most obviously makes sense with it is “apples.”
        In each sentence you tried to figure out what was being said about the subject, in other words, what statement, or point, was being made about the subject. In the first example, the writer is saying that “honesty is” something. In the second one, we are being told that the “man crossed” something and “went” somewhere. In the third sentence, what is being said about the “apples” is that they “had fallen.”
        The second fundamental part of a sentence is the verb—the statement, (the point), that the writer is making about the subject.

* * *

        Thus, the logic of the sentence and the longer composition is basically the same:

The writer has to be talking about something. This is the subject of the sentence and the topic of the paragraph or essay.

The writer has to be saying something about that subject or topic. This is the verb of the sentence and the controlling idea of the paragraph or essay.

The writer gives necessary or helpful additional information. This is given in the form of modifiers in the sentence and additional sentences in the paragraph or essay.

2-5.
Consider the following short brainstorm list on the topic of the depletion of our forests. Divide the ideas into two groups for two separate compositions.

1.   restrict the cutting of trees
2.   impose penalties for illegal cutting
3.   protect animal habitat
4.   reduce greenhouse effect
5.   recycle paper
6.   employ more people to plant seedlings
7.   prevent erosion

2-6.
Which of the items in Exercise 2-5 develop the idea of why something should be done to stop the depletion of the forests? Which ones develop the idea of how we can protect our dwindling forests?

        Notice that if you were to write on the depletion of the forests, you would want to focus on either why we need to stop the damage or how we can do so because a single controlling idea does not go in these two separate directions.

Establishing the direction of a composition

        Groups of related ideas can also help us determine the direction of a controlling idea. In Exercise 2-5, about the depletion of our forests, items 1, 2, 5, and 6 (“restrict the cutting of trees,” “impose penalties for illegal cutting,” “recycle paper,” and “employ more people to plant seedlings”) lead in the direction of how we can protect our dwindling forests whereas items 3, 4, and 7 (“protect animal habitat,” “reduce greenhouse effect,” and “prevent erosion”) explain why something should be done to stop the depletion of the forests. The first group can be used for a composition on the ways to protect our forests, with “can protect” as the controlling idea. The second is useful for a different composition, one giving the reasons for taking action to protect our forests, with “should protect” as the controlling idea.
        In other words, each group in Exercise 2-5 leads in a particular direction. This direction suggests both a controlling idea and the possible development of a composition.

INTERPRETING MEANING: FACTS, OPINIONS, AND REASONED JUDGMENTS

        Do you believe the following assertions to be true?

1.   There will be daylight outside at noon tomorrow.
2.   Joe, who has A’s on all of the quizzes so far, is in a position to do very well on the next quiz.
3.   Carter was a better president than Reagan.
4.   The Mayflower made numerous trips across the Atlantic Ocean.
5.   There will be more riots in our large cities in the future.
6.   The death penalty should be in force in every state.

        For those statements in the list that you consider to be true, try to identify your reasons for believing them.
        The first assertion is one that nearly everyone would readily agree with because what is stated seems obvious. Even during a heavy storm or an eclipse of the sun, there is some light during the middle of the day.
        The fourth assertion is also easy to accept as true. There are abundant records to indicate that the Mayflower brought the Pilgrims to what was later called Massachusetts and that the ship was afterwards used to bring African slaves across the ocean.
        These two assertions are statements of fact, in other words, statements of something that is indisputably true. A fact can be something obvious. For example, if the person sitting behind you says, “I am sitting behind you,” this person is stating an obvious fact. Unquestionable evidence, such as thoroughly confirmed scientific or historical data, can also be the basis for a statement of fact.
        The third assertion represents someone’s opinion. There are several possible bases for this opinion. One basis might be a preference for a Democrat. Another might be a simple preference for Carter as a person. Another debatable point is the choice of the word “better.” This term is vague and subjective—different things are “better” for different people. Even a detailed analysis of the country’s situation under each president would not quell disputes over this statement of opinion because people do not easily agree on just what is good for the country.
        The sixth assertion also expresses an opinion that is highly debatable rather than convincing. Even people who are basically in favor of the death penalty hotly dispute who should be put to death. Moreover, different individuals favor the death penalty for varying reasons. Some base their belief on the idea of “an eye for an eye,” a concept that is usually associated with religion. Some believe that capital punishment deters crime. Some voice the idea that only the death penalty gets dangerous criminals off the streets permanently. Yet others feel that repeat criminals who are simply sent back to prison do not get the sense that they are being punished because for them, imprisonment is “business as usual.” Only the death penalty, therefore, is meaningful in these cases, these advocates of capital punishment assert. Those against the death penalty sometimes base their belief on a moral objection to taking someone’s life. Others believe that capital punishment encourages crime because it sends the message to the public that it is all right to take a life. Some believe, as part of their religion, that only their god can take a life. Furthermore, many persons on both sides of the issue believe as they do primarily because a relative, friend, or influential person voices a particular opinion. Finding objective, convincing support for the sixth assertion would therefore be an extremely difficult task.
        The second assertion shows something that represents a probability rather than an actual fact. Past successes tend to indicate the probability of future successes. Also, if the next quiz involves material and concepts covered on previous quizzes, Joe should be in a position to do well. However, we still cannot simply accept the statement as unquestionably true. The quiz might cover something in which Joe is very weak. Also, he might not be prepared for the quiz—or even take it—for a variety of reasons. Our expectation that Joe is in a position to do well is an example of a reasoned judgment. But we cannot definitely state that he is in a position to do well.
        The fifth assertion is similar. We can reasonably expect riots in the cities because of serious problems not yet solved. But we cannot logically make a definite statement that there will be riots; we can only make a strong case for the probability of future riots in our large cities.
        Conclusions based on reasoned reflection from different perspectives, or points of view, are called reasoned judgments.
        Are facts, opinions, and reasoned judgments all appropriate in college writing? To get a clearer answer to this question, work your way carefully through the next exercise.

TRANSITIONS

        What do you understand from each of the following groups of sentences?

1.   People who want to lose weight often exercise. They usually do not actually lose unless they reduce their intake of fat.

2.   The children in the group were anxious to visit Disneyland. They were eager to see Universal Studios.

3.   The children in the local elementary school district are currently doing several projects on different kinds of pollution. They are learning important facts about the environment.

        Your impression may well be that you understood very little.
        Each individual sentence in the preceding set of examples makes a clear statement. But when statements follow one another, how they relate also needs to be clear. In the first example, the important idea of a contrast is missing. Compare

People who want to lose weight often exercise. However, they usually do not actually lose unless they reduce their intake of fat.

        In the second example, another idea is added to the statement before it. Compare

The children in the group were anxious to visit Disneyland. They were also eager to see Universal Studios.

        In the third sample group, the important idea of a result has been omitted. Compare

The children in the local elementary school district are currently doing several projects on different kinds of pollution. As a result, they are learning important facts about the environment.

        Each individual sentence in the preceding set of examples makes a clear statement. But when statements follow one another, how they relate also needs to be clear. In the first example, the important idea of a contrast is missing. Compare

People who want to lose weight often exercise. However, they usually do not actually lose unless they reduce their intake of fat.

        In the second example, another idea is added to the statement before it. Compare

The children in the group were anxious to visit Disneyland. They were also eager to see Universal Studios.

        In the third sample group, the important idea of a result has been omitted. Compare

The children in the local elementary school district are currently doing several projects on different kinds of pollution. As a result, they are learning important facts about the environment.

OTHER TRANSITIONAL DEVICES

        See if you can discover the technique that helps the following paragraph to flow so coherently.

      Dieters may at times seem ready to try almost anything to lose weight. However, certain strategies seem especially helpful to weight watchers. Most people who want to lose pounds get good results by carefully controlling their intake of calories and of fat. Also, many people on a diet have discovered that they can literally walk pounds off. Finally, those trying to lose weight get better results when they accept the fact that they are simply going to have to change their habits and regulate their lives accordingly.

        If you did not find the four synonyms for “dieters,” go back through the paragraph and locate them. Then compare the same paragraph with “dieters” in all five places.

INTRODUCTIONS

        Consider the following introductory paragraphs to short essays. Are they effective introductions?

      Television came into existence around half a century ago. Since then, it has been a part of everyday life. The difference between then and now is that television was a luxury. Television provides an escape from the real world.

      Every day in the newspapers we read about crimes committed by juvenile offenders. These crimes range from minor incidents of vandalism to felony offenses, including murder.

        Try to imagine what you would be reading about in each essay according to each of the preceding introductions. Can you tell what the writer’s point is in either case?
        What, in your opinion, is the purpose of an introduction at the beginning of a piece of writing? Why do we need one at all?
        The first sample introduction obviously brings up a topic, “television.” But the point the writer is going to make about television in the essay is not clear at all. Statements are made about television when it was first invented. Then there is a comment about what television does. However, there is no direction in the introduction, and therefore we really do not know what the essay will develop.
        The second introduction, unlike the first, seems to start off in a particular direction. However, the writer who states that crimes committed by juveniles “range” from minor incidents to felonies is introducing the description of a large number of crimes, material on which entire books are written. There is no indication of a specific point to be developed, so this introductory paragraph also fails to accomplish the purpose of effectively beginning a composition.

REVISING

        Would you turn in the following paragraph to an English instructor for a grade?

      Movies today are only geared toward one thing. Todays movies seem to only lean toward one idea, that idea is violence. No matter where one turns violence can be seen in any movie. Films, like “Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom”, “Gremlins”, are blockbuster presentations, the whole plot is based around violence. A person can not critisize the producer’s for creating these films because this is what the public is demanding, especially the younger generations. The teenagers of today are definetely the bread and butter of the film industry. Todays theater’s have become hangouts, and there are a very large volume of teenagers seeing these films. I just wish there was a different trend in films.

        You probably would not expect a passing grade for the above paragraph. Look it over carefully to identify what changes need to be made. Then compare the following version. Exactly what changes have been made? Is the paragraph effective in this form?

      Movies today are geared toward only one thing. Today’s movies seem to lean toward only one idea; that idea is violence. No matter where one turns, violence can be seen in any movie. Films like Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and Gremlins are blockbuster presentations. The whole plot is based around violence. A person cannot criticize the producers for creating these films because this type of production is what people, especially the younger generations, are demanding. The teenagers of today are definitely the bread and butter of the film industry. Today’s theaters have become hangouts, and a very large number of teenagers are seeing these films. I just wish there were a different trend in films.

        Did you notice that the only changes made were corrections of the errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation? Did these corrections turn the paragraph into a satisfactory one?
        There are still major problems with the paragraph. First and foremost, it does not have a controlling idea. Rather than develop a point, the writer rambles on about the sad trend toward violence in movies. Compare the preceding paragraph with the one that follows.

WRITING CORRECT SENTENCES

        Do any of the following “sentences” communicate meaning effectively?

1.   The English drink tea the Germans drink beer.
2.   Even though the contestant knew the answer.
3.   By the way they went out.
4.   Hanging from the tree limb, we saw a bat.
5.   There is some apples in the fruit basket.
6.   If a person seems unprepared for an interview, you do not get the job.
7.   He likes camping, hunting, and to fish.
8.   People blame television for everything that is wrong in society and come to believe it.

        All of the above “sentences,” as you probably noticed, are confusing. Actually, each one contains an error that interferes with the communication of meaning. In the first one, a statement is made about the English, and another statement, about the Germans, follows immediately, with no connection shown between the two ideas. The second example, by itself, does not make any statement, nor does the third, simply because it is not correctly punctuated.
        Example 4 communicates a meaning that is different from the intended one because the words are not arranged properly. Numbers 5, 6, and 7 contain inconsistencies that interfere with understanding. The last example has an error in function that makes the meaning unclear.

MODIFIER ERRORS

        What do the following sentences really state?

Lying under the coffee table, the instructor found her missing red pen.

At the age of five, my mother was already teaching me to play chess.

As they are written—and how we communicate depends on how we write our sentences—the instructor is lying under the coffee table in the first example, and the mother is only five years old in the second.

Faulty parallelism

Consider the following example:

She likes coffee and dogs.

Why does it seem illogical?
        Your reaction to this sentence may have been that coffee and dogs do not go together. The two words, as nouns, fit together grammatically, but there is still a logic problem: ideas that we link with and need to be comparable, going together both grammatically and logically. In other words, they need to be parallel.

Numerous examples of academic writing accompanied by prompts for student discussion and writing:

Illustration essay

      The power struggle in Europe in the early 1700s involving absolute monarchies and Machiavellian politics was not destined to last indefinitely. A change in attitude was on the horizon, and a number of the leading thinkers of the time were beginning to find a new faith in science and reason. These thinkers, who believed that political and social problems could be solved through reason, wanted a rationally organized world in which enlightened progress would destroy the errors and prejudices of the past. The resulting movement, which came to be known as the Enlightenment, brought about a drastic rethinking of some important traditional institutions.
      The first institution to find itself under fire was the church. Not only the Catholic but also the other established religions were targeted by philosophers, who preferred a sort of natural religion based on a belief in a god, the immortality of the soul, and the traditional religious virtues. In this way, religion became more personal, and the concept of tolerance and religious freedom, already current in England, began to take hold in France and other countries as well.
      Another system that came to be questioned was the state-directed economy. Leading thinkers in the field believed that there were natural laws which regulated economics, just as there were those that regulated science. They therefore advocated free trade and general economic freedom.
      During this period, education was also drastically reconsidered as an institution. With the vigorous interest in the sciences and philosophy came the idea that public instruction, in other words, education for all, was highly desirable. The leaders of the movement therefore recommended that their governments found schools and hire teachers to instruct young people, with an emphasis on the history of civilization and the sciences.
      Finally, the institution of the absolute monarchy was brought into question. Montesquieu advocated the separation of powers, with the creation of executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Although this idea did not really pose a threat to the enlightened despotism of the time, it was nevertheless a revolutionary concept.
      The new ideas of the Enlightenment took the form of thought rather than action, and they led not to revolution but to the rapid rise and fall of a variety of reforms. These reforms were carried out by enlightened monarchs whose intention was to put their authority to the service of the people. They designed these reforms, however, according to their own beliefs rather than the people’s real needs. There was still no question of democracy, with the continuing hatred of the common people on the part of even a Voltaire. Yet this extensive reconsidering of some key traditional beliefs was an important step forward in history and a crucial one for the later development of more democratic ideas.

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS OR GROUP DISCUSSION OR WRITING

1.   Which issues raised during the period of the Enlightenment are still being debated?
2.   Why is it difficult for people to agree on issues regarding religion, the economy, education, and leadership?
3.   The new American nation was formed during the period of the Enlightenment. What direct influence did the movement have on our institutions?
4.   In what ways is our society a more democratic one than the European and American societies of 200 years ago?

Practice with the focused development of the point:

        This need to select ideas critically does not mean that all of the other items on a brainstorm list should be rejected. Although the key supporting ideas must lead in a particular direction (such as why, how, or what), the more detailed explanations and illustrations can include a variety of information leading in different directions. Consider, for example, the following paragraph on distractions in the library, which uses all but one of the ideas in the list from Exercise 2-8.

1.   people talking
2.   people walking by
3.   sit at the far end of the room
4.   people passing by attract attention
5.   talking disrupts
6.   friends coming over
7.   face a corner
8.   friends interrupt
9.   occupy the next seat as well

      There are many distractions that make the college library a difficult place to study. First, people walk by constantly. They attract attention, as any moving object tends to draw the eye. Also, they often make noise as they go by, or make attention-getting gestures to friends, or go back and forth several times before they finally settle down—or leave altogether. Second, people talk. Conversations nearby disrupt a person who is trying to concentrate on a textbook chapter or a difficult problem. If something interesting is said, the person trying to study is going to focus on the conversation and lose track of the lesson. Finally, friends often come over. They interrupt one’s train of thought, and they often insist that it is time for a break, which frequently turns out to be an endless one. At times, the only solution to the problem for the good student is to do what the bad student had to do in times past: sit in a far corner, facing the wall.

        In this paragraph, the sentences that bring up the key ideas state what the distractions are: the people that walk by, the people that talk, and the friends that come over. Then some of the brainstorm list items focusing on why (items 4, 5, and 8) are used to explain the distractions named. For example, the idea that people “attract attention” (item 4) helps to explain why the people that walk by (item 2) create a problem. Notice that even some of the how items (3 and 7) are incorporated into the paragraph: they are part of the conclusion based on a solution to the problem.

Practice with evaluating support:

3-1.
Which of the following sentences support this statement?

We should take action to solve our environmental problems for several important reasons.

1.   The damage to the ozone layer is extensive.
2.   Many other nations are passing laws regarding the environment.
3.   Industrial waste disposal should be controlled.
4.   Scientific studies need to be conducted to determine the extent of current damage to the environment.
5.   The loss of forests has contributed to atmosphere-related problems.
6.   Limits can be placed on the amount of land to be developed.
7.   The environmental damage is greater in some parts of the country than in others.

        All of the above sentences are related to the environment, but only the first and fifth actually support the statement, indicating reasons for which we should take action to solve our environmental problems. What is being done elsewhere (sentence 2), what exactly should be controlled (sentence 3), what studies need to be done about the problems (sentence 4), what can be done (sentence 6), and how damage compares in different areas (sentence 7) do not contribute to the idea that something should be done.
        When we write, we make statements that need to be supported appropriately.

Consider whether the following statement is convincingly supported.

Women have limitations which define their role in society.

      Their place is in the home.
      They are less intelligent than men.
      They do not know how to make decisions.

        The information above, as it is presented, is not convincing. First, the statements do not serve to convince the reader who already has those beliefs about women. Second, they offer no logical support to convince the reader who does not subscribe to those beliefs already. If, on the other hand, the writer’s purpose in giving this information is not to convince the reader but rather to indicate the beliefs that lead to discrimination against women, then this intent needs to be clearly indicated:

Women have limitations which define their role in society. Barriers to women’s progress are put up by people who believe that women’s place is in the home, that they are less intelligent than men, and that they do not know how to make decisions.

Clarification of common logic problems:

4-12.
Are the following statements convincing?

1.   In 1992, most of Los Angeles was destroyed in one day of rioting.
2.   Proper veterinary care helps eliminate pets that carry diseases.
3.   Territory is often the cause of war.
4.   The worst problem is the children who breathe second-hand smoke.
5.   People who have positive minds are not affected by violence on television.
6.   Fast foods are not as healthful as home-cooked meals.
7.   Organized shoppers always bring a list to the store.
8.   A used car costs around three or four thousand dollars.
9.   We can educate our children to be either open-minded or old fashioned.
10. He may need surgery or a bypass.
11. A man who has two dependents and a house payment cannot manage on a minimum-wage job.
12. The lack of human compassion is at an all-time low.

        All of these statements are illogical and therefore unconvincing.
        Most of Los Angeles obviously was not destroyed in the 1992 riots. Even though there was extensive damage, most of the city did not suffer damage. This statement is an exaggeration.
        The second assertion is also erroneous. Proper veterinary care is not supposed to eliminate “pets,” but rather their diseases. The statement should be worded accordingly.

Proper veterinary care helps eliminate the diseases that pets carry.

        In the third, we have the statement that “territory is the cause” of war. But the territory itself does not cause war; it is the dispute over the territory that brings about the conflict.

A dispute over territory is often the cause of war.

        The problem in the fourth sentence is a similar one. The problem is not the children but the fact that they breathe the smoke.

The worst problem is that children breathe the second-hand smoke.

        The fifth statement is a generalization that is inaccurate. Many people with positive minds are still affected a great deal by the violence on television. The problem in item 6 is similar. Many home-cooked foods are unhealthful. A much more specific statement needs to be made in both cases.
        Organized shoppers, in the next assertion, always bring a list. In reality, they may not always do anything. Nor do used cars generally cost around three or four thousand dollars, as the next sentence states. Their prices actually vary tremendously.
        The writer of statement number nine is giving us only two alternatives for raising children. Apart from the ambiguity of the terms, there are also other ways of raising children.
        Number ten is faulty because “or” is joining “surgery” with “bypass,” which is a type of surgery, not an alternative to it.
        The eleventh statement is inappropriate because the underlying assumption is that a woman does not have the problem. A “person” should be substituted for a “man.”
        The last assertion is also faulty. The “lack” of something cannot be at an all-time “low.”
        A statement needs to make sense. In other words, the elements that we put together as a sentence must fit together logically. There are several specific strategies you can follow to test the logic of your sentences.

Shifts

        Each of the following sentences has a logic problem.

When a person goes to the store, you should count your change.

The thief raced downstairs in his attempt to escape and runs right into the detective.

When tourists go to San Francisco, public transportation is frequently used by them.

In the first example, the same individual is referred to as a “person” and “you.” In the second, the time is established as past by the verb “raced”; then the time is changed, without reason, to the present (“runs”). In the third, the focus needlessly shifts from the “tourists” to “public transportation.” We can express each of these thoughts consistently, as follows:

People who go to the store should count their change.

The thief raced downstairs in his attempt to escape and ran right into the detective.

When tourists go to San Francisco, they frequently use public transportation.

Thought-provoking questions following the reading selections:

[following Paul Galloway’s “The Holocaust—Could It Happen in the United States?”]

Questions for discussion and writing

1.   Can you recall some examples of obedience to an “authority” that you find objectionable? Consider examples from your personal experience, current events, and historical records.
2.   Do people sometimes follow orders for the sake of self-preservation? Explain and give examples.
3.   When should people just “do their job,” and when should they not? When should they question authority? At what point do individuals become personally responsible for actions they perform at the direction of others?
4.   Milgram performed his experiments several decades ago. Would the same experiment performed at the present time yield the same results? Why or why not?
5.   What questions should one ask when evaluating the results of a study or an experiment? What do we need to know to judge the accuracy and validity of a study?

[following Harriet R. Michel’s “King—from Martin to Rodney”]

Questions for discussion and writing

1.   Michel says that as a student at Juniata College, she endeavored to make blacks seem “more familiar and less exotic.” How can contacts between people of different races lead to improved relations?
2.   What laws, ordinances, and policies have been enacted with the purpose of creating familiarity between races?
3.   Michel states that in spite of affirmative action, “women who wanted to succeed behaved like men.” Yet new points of view have been expressed by women, by blacks, and by people in other groups that have benefited from the civil rights movement. To what extent should we continue to follow the dominant European male viewpoints? How extensively should we consider new ideas and perspectives?
4.   What do you feel should be done about poverty in America? What measures are likely to help? What can the poor themselves realistically do to help their own situation?
5.   Several ideas are quoted from Whitney Young at the end of the reading. On what does Young base these beliefs? Can you find a correlation between Young’s beliefs and those of Adel Labib as he helped the people of Qena, Egypt, put into practice the principles of equality? Have the American leaders of the new millennium been guided by those beliefs?

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