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Making Grammar Work

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An innovative approach to an understanding of grammar:

SENTENCES

Unscramble the following words so that they make a sentence.

progress military because were many flying was over air the airplanes town show in annual the

Once you have figured out the sentence, carefully consider how you arrived at your answer. To begin with, as you first read through the words, what were you essentially looking for? Did you then look for another particular element? What did you do with the remaining words? Attempt to find specific answers to these questions before you read the discussion that follows. Most people, as they begin to unscramble the words, look through the words a first time to figure out what the sentence is about. The most likely choices in this case are "progress," "air," "airplanes," "town," and "show." In other words, people usually begin by instinctively looking for the subject of the sentence, which names what the sentence is about. Then they go back through the sentence to find out what happened or what was being said about the subject. In this example, "were flying" and "was" are possibilities. Thus, they are looking for the verb of the sentence, which makes a statement about the subject. We instinctively look for the subject and the verb in such sentences because the subject and the verb are the essential elements in any sentence. In the scrambled sentence, you may have matched "were flying" with the possible subject "airplanes." Your next step was probably to put together groups of words. You may have tried to figure out "over" what and "in" what. This procedure also makes sense because most sentences have such groups of words, called phrases. In the scrambled sentence, you may have found two prepositional phrases: "over the town" and "in progress." In this way, you may have been able to figure out the following sentence:

Many military airplanes were flying over the town because the annual air show was in progress.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AS SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS

A subordinate clause that names can be used as a subject or an object in a sentence. Compare the function of the noun and of the subordinate clause in each pair of examples.

Her loneliness was apparent. [noun as subject]
That she was lonely was apparent. [subordinate clause as subject]

People noticed her loneliness. [noun as direct object]
People noticed that she was lonely. [subordinate clause as direct object]

She has forgotten about the tragedy. [noun as object of the preposition about]
She has forgotten about what happened. [subordinate clause as object of the preposition about]

These subordinate clauses that name are also called noun clauses.

From "Article Usage"

Either the definite or the indefinite article can be used in many cases, with some difference in meaning.

She had a chef's salad for lunch. [the emphasis is on a salad, not one of something else]
She had the chef's salad for lunch. [the emphasis is on a particular creation in some restaurant]

In many cases, either the definite or the indefinite article is possible. The speaker's (or writer's) choice depends on whether he or she has something particular in mind.

Nouns formed from adjectives

In English, we express certain collective ideas with nouns formed from adjectives or passive participles.

The deaf can get help through government programs.
The unemployed often need to acquire desired work skills.

These terms, plural in form, indicate entire categories of people. They generally classify people according to acquired conditions. Some commonly used ones are the following:

the rich
the poor
the unemployed
the jobless
the homeless the handicapped
the deaf
the blind
the talented
the gifted

As we have seen, the in English is related to the demonstrative idea of that and those. In this way, we use the with these terms because they are really shortened forms of those who are rich (and so forth), an idea involving more or less all of the people in the category.

Could

In the negative, could expresses either possibility or capability in the past.

The secretary could not type the report until it was ready. [possibility]
The doctor could not see him until Tuesday at 3 o'clock. [possibility]

He could not drive until he got help from his older sister. [capability]
Jack could not play his older brother's clarinet. [capability]

These ideas can also be expressed as follows:

It was not possible for the secretary to type the report until it was ready.
It was not possible for the doctor to see him until Tuesday at 3 o'clock.

He was not capable of driving until he got help from his older sister.
Jack was not capable of playing his older brother's clarinet.

In the affirmative, could expresses only past capability. We do not use could to show that somebody actually did something through that capability.

She could play tennis for several hours without getting tired when she was a teenager.

but

She was able to (not could) win the community tennis tournament when she was fifteen.

or

She managed to win the community tennis tournament when she was fifteen.

or

She succeeded in winning the community tennis tournament when she was fifteen.

Possessives with gerunds

What is the direct object in the following sentence?

His parents did not like him going there alone.

As the sentence is written, the direct object is "him," and the word "going" is an active participle which modifies "him."

The writer, however, probably does not want to say that his parents did not like him. What the parents really did not like was the son's going there alone. In other words, "going" needs to be the direct object, and the sentence must be reworded so that the logical meaning is expressed:

His parents did not like his going there alone.

In the revised sentence, "going," a gerund, is the direct object. The pronoun "him," naming in the original version, has been changed to the possessive adjective "his," which modifies "going":

An emphasis on word use in context:

Understanding Grammar

What words would you add in the following blanks?

Sam __________ computers for a living. He goes to his clients' offices and homes, __________ he does a lot of driving in connection with his job. He enjoys his job, however, because he __________ often learns something about __________.

Do only certain types of words make sense in each case?

You probably added "installs," "repairs," or "programs" in the first blank. In fact, since no statement is being made about Sam, only a verb makes sense to complete the sentence.

In the second blank, you are likely to have added a word to connect the main clauses that precede and follow the missing word. An appropriate choice is "so," showing the cause and effect connection between the two clauses.

A good choice for the third blank is "very" or "quite" or another word that answers the question how often he learns something about computers. In other words, what makes sense is something that modifies "often."

The last blank must be completed with the name of something. Specifically, the missing word needs to answer the question about what, that is, to name what he often learns something about. Among the many possibilities are "people," "business," and "technology."

Practice with analyzing sentences

Compare the functions of the word leaf in the following sentences:

Most readers leaf through magazines.
A leaf fell onto the picnic table.
People dislike the noise that leaf blowers make.

In the first example, "leaf" is used to make a statement about "readers"-it is a verb. In the second, the word is naming something that grows on a tree. In the last one, it is modifying "blowers"-it is an adjective. In other words, the function of the word depends on how it is used in relation to other words.

We can analyze the preceding examples as follows.

GERUNDS, PARTICIPLES, AND INFINITIVES

Are any of the words in boldface in the following example verbs? What function does each one have?

Making food items to give to friends takes time on the part of the person doing the work.

All of the words in boldface come from verbs, but they are not verbs in the example because they do not make statements. "Making" is naming what the writer is talking about in the sentence; in other words, it is the subject of the sentence. "To give" is telling more about the food items, clarifying their purpose; it is therefore modifying "items." "Doing" is adding information to "person," telling which person; consequently, it is also modifying.

These forms that are taken from verbs but are no longer verbs themselves are called verbals. There are several kinds of verbals: gerunds, participles, and infinitives.

Common sense clarifications of major and minor concepts:

A count noun indicating no particular one

The singular form of any noun or pronoun naming something we can count takes an article. If the is not appropriate because no particular one has yet been identified, we use a or an.

Her mother is an architect. [we can count architects]
A horse is an animal. [we can count horses and animals]
She found a big one. [we can count whatever "one" represents]

With statements involving possession, we usually use the indefinite article because we are typically bringing up something rather than referring to something already clear to the reader or listener.

He has a house in the country.
They own a business.
She possesses an excellent vocabulary.

Compare

She has the dictionary that the instructor recommended.

Since the indefinite articles, a and an, are related to the idea of one, there is no indefinite article before a noun representing something we cannot count. In other words, we do not put a or an in front of a noncount noun.

Mike is taking history and geography.
People require water to live.
Plastic is used in many products.
Jeff is overweight because he likes food so much.
Older people often have problems understanding technology.

Consistently with the principle of using the definite article only for something in particular, we use the before a noncount noun only if the noun is used in a specific situation or is representing a particular quantity of something. Compare the noncount nouns in the following examples with those in the preceding sentences.

Mike has learned a great deal about the history and geography of Africa.
The water in many places must be boiled before it can be drunk.
The plastic used for those bottles can be recycled.
Everyone liked the food at the party.
Humans have the technology they need in order to travel in space.

THE PERFECT TENSES

Compare the following sentences. What period of time is involved in each situation?

Yolanda is wrapping gifts.
Yolanda has been wrapping gifts for an hour.

In which case do we know when she started wrapping gifts?

The focus in the first example is on what is in progress now. The period of time is only the present. There is no attempt to indicate how long she has been wrapping gifts.

In the second sentence, however, the focus is on the hour before now. In this case, the fact that she has been wrapping gifts for an hour is more important than the fact that she is wrapping gifts at the moment.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE

Notice that the terms present, past, and past perfect subjunctive do not indicate present time, past time, and time before another time in the past--the subjunctive does not indicate a real situation oriented in time in such a way.

The present subjunctive expresses something that may actually be realized in the future.

The past subjunctive shows an unreal or improbable action or situation in the present or the future.

The past perfect subjunctive makes a supposition regarding the past.

Note the comments on individual examples in the following subsections.

Clear examples to illustrate the various grammar points:

THE CONCEPT OF THE PERFECT TENSES

In English, as we have seen, we have a separate set of verb tenses that we use when we want to focus on the period of time before the present, the past, or the future.

We use these tenses frequently to express how much time an action or situation has been in effect.

Alice has been taking the class for three weeks.
Lisa has been teaching for seven years.
The guests have been here for half an hour.

The perfect tenses can also be used to indicate when an action or situation started.

Frances has been growing herbs since 1995.
Lois has been using the Internet since last year.
The Smiths have enjoyed making couscous since they visited Egypt two years ago.

We can express with the perfect tenses how many times something has happened so far.

Chris has presented at conferences at least ten times.
The class has visited the science museum several times.
The town theater company has performed three plays so far this season.

We can state, using one of the perfect tenses, that something actually has or has not happened.

Mike has been in San Francisco, but he has never visited Los Angeles.
The directors have canceled the project.
Their children have never flown in an airplane.

We have studied the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense. There is a perfect tense that focuses on time before each one.

The professor has graded all the papers. [time before the present]
The professor had graded all the papers before she went to class. [time before a past time-when she went to class]
The professor will have graded all the papers before she goes to class. [time before a future time-when she goes to class]

The past subjunctive

The past subjunctive has the same form as the past tense for all verbs except be, whose form is were. This form is highly confusing to both native and nonnative speakers, who mistakenly associate it with the past tense.

This subjunctive form is also used in some sentences involving conditions.

The past subjunctive can express the unreal present or future.

UNREAL PRESENT

If Steve took a computer class, he could get a better job. [he is not taking one, and the writer is not saying that he took one at some time in the past]
If Mary were tall, she would not need a stool to reach the cupboard above the stove. [not: was--she did not go from tall to short]

If only I knew calculus! [I do not know it now and did not know it in the past]
If Mikey only liked salads! [Mikey did not lose his taste for them]

She wishes she were rich. [she is sorry that she is not rich]
I wish I had more money. [I regret not having more money]

Joe talks as if he repaired computers all the time! [he does not repair computers all the time]
Mary acts as though she owned a mansion! [she has not owned one]

Brad, because he goes to school and works, would manage more easily if he had his own car. [he does not have one]
The teacher would appreciate it if the students always wrote legibly. [they do not always write legibly]

His mother would rather he did not surf. [he surfs]
Mary would rather her guests arrived on time when she invites them for dinner. [they do not habitually arrive on time]

FUTURE

It is time that their son became responsible. [he was not responsible before-the idea expressed is that he should become responsible in the near future]
It is time that we told them. [we should tell them right away]
Mark would rather we came a half hour before the play starts. [a future event]

The choice between active and passive forms depends on the meaning the writer/speaker wishes to express. Compare the following examples.

A nurse accidentally gave the patient the wrong medicine. [attention is called to the nurse's mistake]
The patient was accidentally given the wrong medicine. [attention is called to the problem of the patient's receiving the wrong medicine]

Meaningful terminology, with the inclusion of other commonly used terms:

PARTS OF SPEECH

Words that make statements: verbs

Words that make statements, such as "take," "recognize," and "live," are verbs.

What do the boldfaced words in the following sentences have in common?

The park attracts many visitors.
The park is large.
The park has several campgrounds.

In the first sentence, the writer is saying that the park does something (it produces an effect). In the second, the writer is telling us that the park is something. In the third, we are reading that the park has something. In other words, something is being said about the park in each of the three sentences. That is, the words "attracts," "is," and "has" all make statements about the park.

Thus, verbs have in common the function of making a statement about a subject.

The so-called present participle, by itself, does not indicate a present idea but rather an active one. Consider the following examples and the alternative ways of expressing the same ideas.

Those children, running down the stairs, are taking chances. [present]
Those children, who are running down the stairs, are taking chances. [present]

Their neighbor, waiting too long to sell her house, had to accept a low offer. [past]
Their neighbor, because she had waited too long to sell her house, had to accept a low offer. [past]

Marie, traveling through South America this coming summer, will have a wonderful opportunity to practice her Spanish. [future]
Marie, when she travels through South America this coming summer, will have a wonderful opportunity to practice her Spanish. [future]

Passive (past) participles

The so-called past participles are in reality passive modifiers rather than words expressing past time.

Passive participles of regular verbs end in -ed. Irregular verbs generally have irregular passive participles. Refer to column 3 in the table of irregular verbs in Appendix 2 for the forms of these participles.

Passive participles can also be made negative.

These same ideas can be expressed with subordinate clauses:

The pieces which were played by the band included selections from three different centuries.
Documents which were written by famous people are often on display in museums.
The pyramids, which were built in ancient times, have a great deal of interest for people today.
The books which were not sold at the garage sale were given to a public library.
The Johnsons especially enjoyed the dish which was not chosen by anyone else.

As we have seen, the so-called past participle, by itself, does not indicate a past idea but rather a passive one. Consider the following examples and the alternative ways of expressing the same ideas.

The Rossini overture played at the concert next Saturday will be enjoyed by the entire audience. [future]
That Rossini overture, played at so many concerts, is always enjoyed by the entire audience. [present]
The Rossini overture played at the concert last Saturday was enjoyed by the entire audience. [past]

Analysis that moves from basic concepts to more complex ones:

WORDS WITH DIFFERENT SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS

Compare the following pairs of words with different singular and plural forms.

many suitcases
much baggage
few limes
little fruit

fewer assignments
less homework
the fewest chores
the least housework
a number of devices
an amount of equipment

Few/a few and little/a little

Few has the meaning of not many, and little gives the idea of not much. A few and a little have the very different meaning of some--as opposed to not any at all.

Chris normally eats few [not many] desserts, but she ate a few [some] of the ones at the party.
Dan spends little [not much] time taking care of the yard because he works overtime several days a week, but last weekend he spent a little [some] time doing work in the yard.

Sometimes we emphasize this difference in meaning by adding very to few or little (= almost no/none) or quite to a few or a little (= more than just a few or a little):

Alice eats very few snacks because she does not want to gain weight. [she eats almost no snacks]
Dan took quite a few pictures on his trip to Toronto. [he took a lot of pictures]

A number of/the number of

A number of is plural, indicating the idea of several or quite a few, whereas the number is singular, expressing the total number.

A number of people were injured during the earthquake, but the exact number of them was not reported.

See collective nouns in "Special Noun Forms" in Chapter 2.

Infinitives and participles with verbs of perception

Compare

I saw Ted cross the street.
I saw Ted crossing the street.

The first example gives the impression that Ted reached the other side of the street, but the second does not: the active participle "crossing" describes Ted as involved in an action in progress.

Verbs that already typically indicate action in progress may not have this clear distinction. In the following example, both the idea of watching and that of rain come or coming down indicate continuous action.

I watched the rain come [or: coming] down.

Similarly, we can say

The children listened to the park ranger tell [or: telling] animal stories.

With certain verbs, only the idea of something in progress makes sense.

I vividly remember my father working on his projects. [not: work]
They discovered their son climbing out the window at 11 o'clock. [not: climb]

In remembering, the writer is seeing the father working; in other words, we need the form showing something in progress: working. In the second example, climbing describes what their son was doing at the moment they discovered him.

Coverage of common problems in student writing:

One and you

In conversation, you is frequently used to mean either people in general or a certain category of people:

You have a lot of papers to fill out when you buy a home. [people in general]
At Riverview College, you have to take an English class during your first semester. [students]

In writing, you means the reader. It should therefore be replaced with a word that can represent the appropriate person or people.

People have a lot of papers to fill out when they buy a home.
At Riverview College, students have to take an English class during their first semester .

One can be used sparingly.

One needs a passport to travel to most foreign countries.

However, one often sounds awkward, especially if it is used more than once. In addition, if a possessive form is a necessary part of the discussion, the options are either one's or his or her. Also, the writer may need to repeat one or its alternatives, he or she or him or her. A better strategy is to use a noun that specifically names the category of people that are referred to. Instead of writing

In high school, you were able to choose some of your classes.

or

In high school, one was able to choose some of one's classes.

write

In high school, students were able to choose some of their classes.

Notice that we can correct [or improve]

When you return [or one returns] from a trip, you usually have [or one usually has] many articles to put away.

by writing

When people [or travelers or tourists] return from a trip, they usually have many articles to put away.

But the idea can also be effectively reworded as follows:

Travelers returning from a trip usually have many articles to put away.

As and like

Like has not been consistently accepted as a conjunction. It can easily be replaced by words that are considered correct.

He was driving on as if he knew where he was going.
She talked as though she had forgotten all about our appointment.

AGREEMENT ERRORS

As we have already seen, subjects, verbs, and any pronouns and possessive adjectives referring to the subject, must agree--they must be consistently singular or plural.

She likes to prepare her meals by herself.
They like to prepare their meals by themselves.

Similarly, pronouns and their antecedents must agree in number. The following sentence, therefore, does not make sense.

If a person calls someone late at night, they [!] may disturb them [!].

We can correct the sentence by using the plural consistently or rewording the sentence.

If people call other people late at night, they may disturb them. A person may disturb someone by calling late at night.

People speaking do not always follow the principles of agreement regarding pronouns and possessive adjectives because English does not have certain singular forms to represent either the masculine or the feminine. In writing, however, we need to be precise in order to communicate effectively.

Nearly everybody wants to have their own room to themselves. [conversational]
Nearly everybody wants to have his or her own room to himself or herself. [grammatically correct]

Usually we can avoid the awkward double forms--his or her, etc.--by expressing the idea in the plural:

Nearly all people want to have their own rooms to themselves.

See also the section "Other Indefinite Pronouns" in Chapter 6 for rewording ideas.

Be supposed to

Supposed, meaning expected or obligated, is a passive modifier used with the appropriate form of the verb be. It is followed by an infinitive.

The children were supposed to clean up after the party. [expected to]
Doctors are supposed to help people with physical problems. [obligated to]

Both nonnative and native writers frequently fail to add the -d at the end of supposed.

Presentation of common ESL problems:

Use to

Many ESL students do not realize that English has only the past form of use to. They erroneously use this form in the present tense to express a repeated action.

I use to study my English in the evening. [instead of I study]

They should be reminded, first of all, that this form occurs only in the past.

I used to go to school at 8 o'clock when I was a child.

It should also be clarified to them that this form is the equivalent of the simple past. In other words, the preceding example can be worded as

I went to school at 8 o'clock when I was a child.

The students can also be reminded that we often add adverbs such as often, usually, or generally to emphasize the frequency of the repeated action.

See also "Be and get with adjectives and participles" in Chapter 8.

Used to do/be used to doing

Most ESL students have difficulty distinguishing between used to do and be used to doing. They may write or say

I am used to eat my big meal in the middle of the day. [instead of am used to eating]

It should be clarified to them that be used to doing means be accustomed to doing. In other words, we use this construction to express what is customary or normal for us to do. They should also be reminded that this expression can be used in all verb tenses whereas used to do, described in the preceding subsection, has meaning only in the past tense.

See also "Be and get with adjectives and participles" in Chapter 8.

Present perfect in place of the past

ESL students may say or write

I have left my house at 7:30 this morning. [instead of I left]

Most languages that have a verb tense that corresponds in form to the English present perfect use the tense for recent time that is finished. English, however, uses the past tense for time that is finished, regardless of how recently the time ended. See the discussion of the past tense in this chapter.

Missing article

Nonnative speakers may omit articles in certain positions, such as before a singular count noun, because different grammatical or idiomatic usage in their own language interferes. They may, for example, fail to add an article with a noun identifying a person by profession.

He became a doctor even though his family wanted him to be a businessman. [these articles, necessary in English, are omitted in some languages]

Students who understand that a singular count noun requires an article in English can overcome this problem.

The indefinite article is not used with nouns in a partitive sense because such nouns are noncount.

He has egg on his face. [the meaning is some egg, not an egg]
They bought film for their camera. [some film, not a film]

Compare

They bought a roll of film for their camera. [we can count rolls]

Extra article

USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE BEFORE A NOUN IN A GENERAL SENSE

The [!] health is extremely important.

"The health" makes no sense in English because the writer is not talking about any particular health.

He enjoys listening to the [!] music.

"The" is inappropriate because the writer is not talking about any particular music.

Article errors in conjunction with pronouns and related forms

With other

Speakers of certain languages routinely omit articles that need to be used with both the pronoun and the adjective forms of other.

I finished reading one book, so I got other. [instead of another]
He has not bought other book. [instead of another or the other book]

With expressions of quantity

Nonnative students may write

Many of students have problems with English.

The sentence should refer either to many students (that is, no particular ones) or to many of the students (particular ones, such as the ones at the writer's school).

This error is common with many, much, some, most, numbers, and other expressions of quantity.

ESL students also omit of in similar constructions.

A lot people were there. [a lot of people]

A related problem is the failure to distinguish between the pronoun and adjective forms of numbers.

I bought a fifty-dollar dress. [the adjective dollar, not the noun dollars]
A six-foot woman stands out in a crowd. [the adjective foot, not the noun feet]

Students should be reminded that these words are adjectives and therefore are not given an -s or otherwise made plural.

Nonnatives commonly fail to distinguish between few and a few and little and a little:

I have few responsibilities at work. [instead of a few]

This distinction is explained in "Words with Different Singular and Plural Forms" in this chapter.

Problems with relative clauses

Adding extra words

ESL students sometimes add a pronoun to indicate what the relative pronoun replaces.

The books which we borrowed them at the library were in Spanish. [them is superfluous because which already replaces books as the object of borrowed]

The explorer whom the author wrote about him is famous in other countries as well. [whom is the object of about, making him superfluous]

Confusion between what and that in subordinate clauses

Nonnatives, especially those whose languages have the same or similar words for what and that in subordinate clauses, make mistakes in the use of the two words.

He did not remember that [!] the instructor said. [what is needed as the object of said]

See "Subordinate Clauses as Subjects and Objects" in Chapter 1 and "Further uses of that" in "Finer Points" in Chapter 1.

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