Critical Thinking and Basic Writing

A Developing Writer's Guide with Readings

Samples

Discovery exercises which help students identify and apply what they already know about language and about writing:

THE SENTENCE

        The sentence, the shortest form that we have for expressing a complete thought, is the basic unit of college writing. Truly effective compositions are made up of clear, meaningful sentences. College writers, as a result, need to be concerned with expressing their thoughts in effective sentences.
        You can see how sentences are constructed if you experiment with putting them together.

1-1.	Unscramble each group of words to make a sentence.

1. car black is his
2. contract signed and the it brothers read the

        The subject

        As you read through each group of words, you probably asked yourself, perhaps without realizing it, what the scrambled sentence could be about. That is, you may have instinctively searched through the words for one naming something that the writer could be discussing. The only word in the first example that names something is "car." The second group of words could be about a "contract," "brothers," or "it."
        As you went through the words in each sentence trying to identify what the sentence was about, you were instinctively looking for one of the fundamental parts of the group of words that we call a sentence: the subject. The subject is what a sentence is about. In other words, it names what the writer is talking about.

        The verb

        Once you had an idea of what each sentence in the discovery exercise could be about, you probably looked through the scrambled sentences again to figure out what happened or what was being said about the subject. The first example is so short that it is easy to see what the writer is saying: that the car "is" black. In the second sentence, two words show action: "signed" and "read." Of the three possible subjects ("contract," "brothers," and "it"), only the "brothers" would be likely to read and sign something.
        In this way, you were probably able to find the other fundamental part of the sentence, the verb, and match it with the subject. The second fundamental part of any sentence is the verb--the statement the writer is making about the subject.
        When we write--or speak--we have something that we are talking about; that something is our subject. And the reason we write or speak is to make some kind of statement, or point, about our subject; it is our verb that makes the statement. Thus, each sentence contains both a subject and a verb. These are essential elements in any sentence.

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THE FUNCTIONS OF WORDS

        Compare the word "sleep" in the following sentences. What function does it have in each example?

Sleep is necessary for all people.
People sleep in beds.
Sleep deprivation makes it difficult for people to function normally.

In which sentence is "sleep" modifying another word? In which sentence is it naming something? In which one is it making a statement?

        Each word in a sentence has a function in relation to the other words in the sentence. In the first example above, "sleep" is naming what it is that the writer is talking about; it is the subject of the sentence. The subject of any sentence, as we have seen, names what the writer is talking about.
        In the second example, "sleep" is making a statement about "people." It is the verb of the sentence. In the third sentence, "sleep" is modifying "deprivation," telling what kind of deprivation makes it difficult for people to function normally.
        We identify the function of a word in a sentence by the part of speech it represents in that particular sentence. The word "puppy" in the first two sentences of Exercise 1-4 is a noun, naming the animal that the writer is talking about. Similarly, "computer," "information," "people," and "office," in the third sentence, all name something; they are also nouns. Pronouns, like nouns, also name, but only indirectly. In sentences 2 and 3 of Exercise 1-3, "they" is a pronoun, indirectly naming some people; "they" takes the place of the noun that gives a specific name, which in this case is the "children" mentioned in sentence 1 of Exercise 1-3. Pronouns enable us to refer to people, animals, places, things, and ideas without constantly repeating the nouns that name them directly. Imagine, for example, how repetitious you would sound if you referred to yourself for an entire day by your name instead of the pronouns I and me!

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PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION

        Do any of the following sentences communicate meaning effectively?

In any case the decision is unsatisfactory.
If it goes through disaster will result.
Her friends Mary Ann Billy Ray and Alice went on a field trip.

Did you understand either of the first two sentences on a first reading? Can you be sure of the meaning in the last example?

THE FUNCTION OF PUNCTUATION

        The first two discovery sentences are confusing on a first reading because we cannot tell how the words connect logically without rereading the sentences. On the other hand, if the sentences are properly punctuated, the meaning is clear.

In any case, the decision is unsatisfactory.

If we put a comma after the introductory prepositional phrase, "In any case," we can more easily understand that the sentence is about the "decision."

If it goes through, disaster will result.

If we put a comma after the introductory subordinate clause, "If it goes through," then we can readily see that "disaster" is the subject of the sentence, not the object of "through."
The third example does not communicate meaning without commas to indicate how many people went on the field trip. Any one of the following meanings is possible.

Her friends Mary, Ann, Billy, Ray, and Alice went on a field trip. [five people went]
Her friends Mary Ann, Billy, Ray, and Alice went on a field trip. [four people went]
Her friends Mary, Ann, Billy Ray, and Alice went on a field trip. [four people went]
Her friends Mary Ann, Billy Ray, and Alice went on a field trip. [three people went]

The meaning will be clear only if the writer uses commas correctly.

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TRANSITIONS

    What does each of the following groups of sentences communicate?

1. Mary studied hard. She failed her test.
2. Dan mowed the lawn. He pruned some of the bushes.
3. Mike is having problems with calculus. He will seek the help of a tutor.

Each sentence by itself is easy to understand. However, it is not clear on a first reading what the second sentence in each case has to do with the first one. Compare

Mary studied hard, yet she failed her test.

The second sentence was intended to show a contrast with the first. The signal yet makes this contrast clear to the reader.

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OTHER TRANSITIONAL DEVICES

        Compare the following two paragraphs.

1. Most people who go to college nowadays have a future career in mind. Their college work is intended primarily to enable them to get into a particular field. The job they plan to do determines their choice of classes. They choose courses carefully, realizing that they must prepare for a line of work because there will be competition in almost any area.

2. Most people who go to college nowadays have a future career in mind. Their college work is intended primarily to enable them to get into a particular career. The career determines their choice of classes. They choose courses carefully, realizing that they must prepare for a career because there will be competition in almost any career.

Does the second version seem repetitious?
        In the first version, which words have been used to replace "career"?

Synonyms and alternative wordings

        The two discovery paragraphs above show the value of synonyms in writing. When we choose synonyms carefully, we can express our ideas clearly without annoying our readers with needless repetition.
        Probably no two words in English are interchangeable in all writing situations. However, in a piece of writing, other words may convey the same meaning in the particular context and therefore be usable as synonyms. In the preceding examples, the words "field," "job," "line of work," and "area" can all refer to a career. They thus make good substitutes.
        Synonyms can be single words, like "field," "job," and "area" in the example, or they can be alternative wordings, like "line of work."
        Carefully chosen synonyms and alternative wordings can enhance your writing. A thesaurus can help you locate both synonyms and alternative wordings. However, to avoid using words that are not appropriate in your contexts, make sure you choose only familiar words from a thesaurus.

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REVISING A PARAGRAPH

        Would you turn in the following paragraph to an English instructor for a grade:

1. School children are becoming more concearned about the enviroment. Sometimes they know more about things then there parents, they think its a game to put different kinds of thing in different colored containers. It gives them lots of chances to run around. Maybe they can even learn about different kinds of materials by sorting them out for the containers such as paper, aluminum, and glass. Most of there parents don't bother with all that. But its good that the kids care. Or maybe they don't care, maybe its just there teachers that get them to do it. Although I don't think the teacher can give them a grade for it. Were probally lucky the kids are doing something about it.

        Would you turn in the following paragraph for a grade? How does it differ from the original?

2. School children are becoming more concerned about the environment. Sometimes they know more about environmental facts than their parents. They think it is a game to put different kinds of discarded items in different colored containers. Recycling gives them many chances to run around. Maybe they can even learn about different kinds of materials such as paper, aluminum, and glass by sorting them out for the containers. Most of their parents do not bother with all the sorting. But it is good that the children care. Or maybe they do not care. Maybe it is just their teachers that get them to sort the trash. However, I do not think the teacher can give them a grade for recycling. We are probably lucky the children are doing something about the environment.

        Is the second version satisfactory?

Numerous examples of academic writing:

1. Child care at the work site provides some important benefits to working parents with very young children. The first advantage is that such a system makes it much easier for the busy parent to be in touch with the child's reality. The parent and child are together during the parent's commute. In addition, the father or mother can make contact with the child during lunch or other breaks. The parent also has the opportunity to be familiar with the setting in which the preschooler spends long hours and to know the child's friends. In this way, it is easier to develop good communication with the child. Another important advantage of this child care system is the convenience it brings to the busy parent. The working adult does not have to lose valuable time making two trips a day to a private center. The financial advantage can also be considerable because the company can run a center at cost whereas a private provider must make a profit from the business. The company-run center is also dependable, unlike the individual care provider, who may call in sick or otherwise unable to fulfill the usual duties. A final convenience is that the parent is close by if the child becomes ill or gets hurt and is therefore better able to deal with a problem situation. It is no wonder that many parents are putting pressure on the companies where they work to organize a child care center.

9-6.	Consider the following questions on the paragraph above, one at a time.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?
2. What is the controlling idea?
3. What two important benefits (the key ideas) are brought up in the paragraph?
4. Does the paragraph convincingly explain how the working parent benefits from child care at the work site?

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        High school students frequently dread English classes. While they may at times find the discussions interesting and the readings enjoyable, they often develop a certain amount of anxiety when the teacher assigns a written composition. Their negative attitude about papers, moreover, is not entirely unreasonable. Writing, in fact, involves a series of complex tasks.
        The writer must, first of all, identify the purpose of the writing. In other words, the student needs to be clear on what point is to be made as well as to whom it is to be made. Since the same ideas may be expressed in different ways to distinct individuals, the audience for the writing must be clearly established so that the point of the writing and the supporting information can be presented appropriately.
        Gathering relevant information for the composition is another major task. The writer must attempt to find the strongest ideas possible to support the point, as well as a great deal of additional detailed information. Much of the idea gathering is a creative activity, and this task can be stressful, especially if time is limited.
        Putting the information together logically is also a demanding part of writing. This work involves seeing the relationships between a number of complex ideas. The writer must identify what thoughts support others, eliminate information that is off the subject, and organize the usable ideas in a sequence. Then, once the material is in logical order, the writer has the job of adding transitional words and phrases so that the readers can easily follow the progression of ideas.
        Creating sentences that express the intended meanings accurately is the final chore writers face. Precise expression requires, first of all, the choice of words that mean exactly what the writer wants to communicate. Also, the sentences need to be grammatically correct, with words properly spelled, to prevent miscommunication. The need for accuracy at the sentence level can, by itself, make student writers quite nervous.
        All of these tasks require a great deal of thought. And like all activities that involve sustained thinking, writing is unquestionably hard work. But a well written piece can bring its author a certain satisfaction, making the effort worthwhile.

17-2.

Consider the following questions on the preceding essay, one at a time.

1. What is the topic of the essay?
2. What is the controlling idea?
3. How do the topic and the controlling idea of this essay compare with those of the previous essay?
4. What are the key supporting ideas of this essay?
5. How do the key ideas of this essay compare with those of the previous essay?

Examples of techniques for idea gathering, with a clarification of their value:

        If you were to freewrite on desirable personal qualities in an employee, you might come up with something like the following short example of freewriting.

        If I were hiring someone, I would want to be able to get someone that can get the job done. That means following directions exactly. If the person doesn't understand exactly what I want, then ask before doing it wrong and making a mess. I don't mind having to explain things from time to time, but people should listen carefully and make a real effort to do what the employer wants-as long as it is reasonable and right to do. People should also watch how they do their job, not waste materials or time, not get in the way of other employees, not talk on the job instead of doing the job. Talking is fine, of course, and people need to be friends and act positively toward one another. But talk at appropriate times. It's important to be responsible. To think about what we do on the job.

        Notice that the writer begins by putting himself or herself in the position of the employer and imagining what kind of employee will work out, almost visualizing the situation. The writing is grammatically faulty and unpolished-there are incomplete sentences, unnecessary shifts in point of view from I to people to we, poorly expressed ideas, and contractions. Freewriting may contain many more examples of poor writing. But it is still a source of ideas. The above sample brings up, for instance, the ideas of completing work, following directions, communicating, making an effort, being careful, avoiding waste, and many more. These can be added to a brainstorm list. In addition, there are some detailed items that may form the basis for necessary explanations, such as the idea of talking only when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with the job. These more specific ideas, like the more general ones, can be added to the list so that they are available for later use.

Practice with evaluating support:

11-1.

Determine which potential key ideas support each of the following statements, and explain why the others do not provide direct support.

2.	Women who want high-level positions face some difficult obstacles. a. Not only many men but also some women are prejudiced against women who work outside the home. b. The average paycheck of a woman is much less than that of a man. c. Most of the responsibility for housework and child care is still placed on the woman's shoulders, making it more difficult for her to pursue a career. d. Some people feel that women are less intelligent than men. e. Some believe that women are incapable of making decisions. f. There are relatively few high-level positions available.
3.	Many people want their children to go to college for a number of reasons. a. They themselves did not go to college. b. They themselves have low paying jobs. c. They believe that their children can benefit socially from the college experience. d. They feel that their children will have better career opportunities if they have a degree.
[answer for the preceding items as they appear in the answer key]
2.	Items a, c, d, and e bring up obstacles. Item b brings up a problem working women in general face rather than an obstacle encountered by those who pursue high-level positions. Item f shows a problem that both men and women face rather than an obstacle to women only.
3.	Items c and d bring up reasons they have for wanting their children to go to college. Item a by itself is not relevant, but the resulting disadvantages of a person's not going to college would be useful. Item b is also not usable as a key idea, but the idea of earning a higher income is.

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PROVIDING APPROPRIATE SUPPORT

        Are the following statements convincing?

Women are less intelligent than men.
Some people believe that women are less intelligent than men.

        The opinion that women are less intelligent than men has been voiced many, many times over the course of recorded human history. The second sentence, stating that some people have that belief, is clearly true. The first sentence, however, states only the belief itself. It consequently is not likely to convince someone who does not already have that same belief.

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11-5.

What is the basis for each of the following statements? Are they opinions, facts, or reasoned judgments?

1. Some races are more intelligent than others.
2. Women should do all the housework.
3. Children should be seen and not heard.
4. There is nothing worthwhile on television.
5. You can be anything you want.

Clarification of common logic problems:

Faulty statements and faulty predication

        Avoid writing sentences like these:

A good place to start spending more tax money is the police.
An example of a problem is a person who has to pay high medical bills.
By wearing a sleeveless dress may be an insult to people of certain religious beliefs.
Construction sites make a great deal of noise.

The "police" are not a "place," and a "person" is not a "problem." In the third example, "by wearing" does not logically function as a subject for "may be." In the fourth, it does not make sense to say that the "sites" (subject) "make noise." These sentences, like many faulty ones, need to be revised so that they express the intended meanings within their contexts.

Writing assignments that incorporate current and previously presented concepts:

WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

12-11.

Write a paragraph on one of the following topics.

1. Employers are generally looking for certain skills in prospective employees.
2. Senior citizens who are physically able to be active derive benefits from doing work of some kind.
3. Computers make it possible for some businesses to serve customers more efficiently.
4. People who carpool have several advantages.

• Gather ideas by brainstorming and by using the other techniques discussed in Chapter 10. Then organize your ideas carefully. If there is time, conduct a peer conference on your plan, and make improvements as needed before you write your first draft.
• Revise your writing, examining it for focus (topic, controlling idea, and key supporting ideas that lead in a single direction) and support (appropriate and adequate explanations).
• Once your ideas are in place, examine your writing for the logical connections between your ideas, and add or change transitions where necessary. Check to see whether you have successfully used synonyms, alternative wordings, and summarizing words to avoid repetition, and make improvements where appropriate.
• Last of all, proofread your paper carefully for errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

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